Research by Laurie Rudman finds that when female job applicants self-promote, they are likely to be viewed as competent, but they may be disliked and are less likely to be hired because they violated gender expectations for modesty. Sexism can exist on a societal level such as in hiring, employment opportunities, and education.
Have you ever experienced or witnessed sexism? Why do you think there are differences in the jobs women and men have, such as more women nurses but more male surgeons Betz, ? Figure 2. Women now have many jobs previously closed to them, though they still face challenges in male-dominated occupations. People often form judgments and hold expectations about people based on their age.
These judgments and expectations can lead to ageism , or prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age. Typically, ageism occurs against older adults, but ageism also can occur toward younger adults. Think of expectations you hold for older adults. Ageism is widespread in U.
Some cultures, however, including some Asian, Latino, and African American cultures, both outside and within the United States afford older adults respect and honor. Ageism can also occur toward younger adults.
What expectations do you hold toward younger people? Does society expect younger adults to be immature and irresponsible? How might these two forms of ageism affect a younger and older adult who are applying for a sales clerk position?
Another form of prejudice is homophobia : prejudice and discrimination of individuals based solely on their sexual orientation.
Like ageism, homophobia is a widespread prejudice in U. Negative feelings often result in discrimination, such as the exclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender LGBT people from social groups and the avoidance of LGBT neighbors and co-workers. This discrimination also extends to employers deliberately declining to hire qualified LGBT job applicants. Have you experienced or witnessed homophobia? If so, what stereotypes, prejudiced attitudes, and discrimination were evident?
Some people are quite passionate in their hatred for nonheterosexuals in our society. This passionate response has led some researchers to question what motives might exist for homophobic people.
In this experiment, male college students were given a scale that assessed how homophobic they were; those with extreme scores were recruited to participate in the experiment. In the end, 64 men agreed to participate and were split into 2 groups: homophobic men and nonhomophobic men. Both groups of men were fitted with a penile plethysmograph, an instrument that measures changes in blood flow to the penis and serves as an objective measurement of sexual arousal.
All men were shown segments of sexually explicit videos. One of these videos involved a sexual interaction between a man and a woman heterosexual clip.
One video displayed two females engaged in a sexual interaction homosexual female clip , and the final video displayed two men engaged in a sexual interaction homosexual male clip. Changes in penile tumescence were recorded during all three clips, and a subjective measurement of sexual arousal was also obtained.
While both groups of men became sexually aroused to the heterosexual and female homosexual video clips, only those men who were identified as homophobic showed sexual arousal to the homosexual male video clip. While all men reported that their erections indicated arousal for the heterosexual and female homosexual clips, the homophobic men indicated that they were not sexually aroused despite their erections to the male homosexual clips.
Adams et al. Prejudice and discrimination persist in society due to social learning and conformity to social norms. If certain types of prejudice and discrimination are acceptable in a society, there may be normative pressures to conform and share those prejudiced beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.
For example, public and private schools are still somewhat segregated by social class. Historically, only children from wealthy families could afford to attend private schools, whereas children from middle- and low-income families typically attended public schools. If a child from a low-income family received a merit scholarship to attend a private school, how might the child be treated by classmates?
Can you recall a time when you held prejudiced attitudes or beliefs or acted in a discriminatory manner because your group of friends expected you to? When we hold a stereotype about a person, we have expectations that he or she will fulfill that stereotype. A self-fulfilling prophecy is an expectation held by a person that alters his or her behavior in a way that tends to make it true. When we hold stereotypes about a person, we tend to treat the person according to our expectations.
This treatment can influence the person to act according to our stereotypic expectations, thus confirming our stereotypic beliefs. Research by Rosenthal and Jacobson found that disadvantaged students whose teachers expected them to perform well had higher grades than disadvantaged students whose teachers expected them to do poorly.
In turn, the job applicant will perceive that the potential employer dislikes him, and he will respond by giving shorter responses to interview questions, making less eye contact, and generally disengaging from the interview. Do you think this job applicant is likely to be hired? Treating individuals according to stereotypic beliefs can lead to prejudice and discrimination.
Philadelphia: Psychology Press. Whitley, Bernard E. The psychology of prejudice and discrimination. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Designed for an undergraduate course, this book covers the formation of stereotypes and how they are applied in the form of prejudice. It has been updated with the latest evidence from the field of social psychology.
Intergroup relations. Yzerbyt and Demoulin write about the theoretical background of group formation and in their discussion go over what kinds of prejudiced behaviors arise in different situations because of the nature of group formation and social hierarchy.
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Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Introduction Prejudice and stereotyping are biases that work together to create and maintain social inequality. General Overviews There are several books and chapters that offer a broad view of the social psychological research on prejudice and stereotyping. As demonstrated in this video , sayings such as "run like a girl" or "throw like a girl" teach girls that they are physically weaker than boys and are also insulting to girls.
It is important to note that these gender roles are limiting for everyone - while girls are taught that they are physically weaker "run like a girl" , boys are taught that they are emotionally weaker "boys don't cry". These views of gender roles, and the socialization that keeps them alive, have led to discrimination against women in public life, as they are often seen as inappropriately defying their assigned gender role.
Essentially, the power structure at the basis of discrimination and violence against women is reinforced through the process of internalizing stereotypes and gender roles. This historical process, it should be stressed, does not exclude any region of the world; however, in some regions it entails greater violence for women.
Sexism may arise because of socialized concepts of privilege and entitlement. An extreme form of sexism is misogyny, or the "hatred of women" Masequesmay, The presence of misogyny in cultures and societies often leads to high rates of violence against women and the commodification and objectification of women. Structural and cultural norms can breed misogyny. Although most forms of sexism and discrimination negatively impact women, men can be affected as well.
According to a survey conducted in five countries Bulgaria, Cyprus, Denmark, France and the UK , a significant number of men suffer from gender-based discrimination at the workplace, especially in areas with a greater presence of female compared to male workers, such in health-related services Eurofound, , p. However, women suffer from discrimination in the workplace, including within the health sector, because of historical-structural conditions that have greater implications than cases of discrimination against men.
Prejudice and discrimination can be described as a form of intergroup bias. According to the US National Judicial Education Program, the most prominent forms of gender bias are " i Stereotyped thinking about the nature and roles of women and men; ii Devaluing what is perceived as 'woman's work'; iii Lack of knowledge of the social and economic realities of women's and men's lives" Halilovic and others, , p. Bias can often be implicit.
While psychologists in the field of "implicit social cognition" study "implicit attitudes" toward consumer products, self-esteem, food, alcohol, political values, and more, the most striking and well-known research has focused on implicit attitudes toward members of socially stigmatized groups, such as African-Americans, women, and the LGBTQ [Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer] community.
Implicit sexism or "everyday sexism" has been highlighted through a project founded by Laura Bates in Through her website , more than , women and men have shared their experiences of gender imbalance. In Laura's TED talks , she highlights behavioural and policy changes that were triggered by the sharing of these anecdotes from around the globe. Naija Woman Talk True , a collection of monologues based on true-life stories of Nigerian women that challenges social, cultural, and political norms.
Implicit sexism was first analysed through a study conducted on the "blind" auditions for the symphony orchestra in New York from the s and s. The findings show that blind auditions using a screen to conceal the candidates' identity from the jury significantly increased the chances that female musicians would be selected.
This is explained further in this article and illustrated in this video. In another study, focused on hiring practices at university science faculties, staff members were asked to review several job applications. The applications reviewed were identical, apart from the gender of the name of the applicant. They found that science faculty members both male and female were more likely to rate the male candidates as better qualified than the female candidates and want to hire more men than women.
They also found that male candidates were given a higher starting salary compared to female candidates, and that the employers were willing to invest more in the development of the male candidate than the female candidate Moss-Racusin and others, Other studies show that women are interviewed more critically than their male counterparts, and are interrupted more often Yorke, Implicit bias impacts not only the recruitment decision, but also the salary of the individual and the amount of development that is invested in their ongoing progression.
Similarly, the study by Eagly and Karau found that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles because a perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to two forms of prejudice:. Another interesting study focuses on gendered wording in job announcements. The study shows that when job ads mostly include words associated with male stereotypes e. Therefore, job ads with more "masculine" wording reinforce gender inequality in traditionally male-dominated occupations and thereby amount to "institutional-level mechanism of inequality maintenance" Gaucher and others, Finally, this interesting report discusses why women are less likely than men to apply to jobs for which they do not meet all of the advertised requirements.
Sexual harassment is a legal term that refers to unsolicited verbal or physical behaviour of a sexual nature Encyclopaedia Britannica, It includes any sexually motivated behaviour that the recipient finds offensive.
Women and girls can be victims of sexual harassment in the home, the workplace, in school, and the larger community, among other places. Examples of such harassment could be unwanted touching, comments of a sexually suggestive nature, rude or offensive comments about one's gender identity or gender expression, questions prying into the personal private life about their sexual history or orientation, just to name a few. Boys can also be victims of sexual harassment, with the harassers almost always being men.
This illustrates that sexual violence stems from male supremacy over what is considered undervalued or what can be dominated through the body.
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